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Not only would the connection drop without notice but also the error rate was high enough to require a complex protocol to recover from errors The back end of the network, that is, the interoffice trunks, were practically all digital, with more being installed daily The switching systems were becoming digital just as quickly It was expected that the only part of the network that would still be analog was the local loop (our infamous last mile) It was a logical step to provide existing digital capability already in the network directly to the customer This created what is always called the local loop problem The problem is that much of the local loop plant was installed between 40 and 60 years ago and had been designed for normal voice communications only The local loop problem therefore is how to run highspeed digital data on the local loop Several solutions to the local loop problem are discussed in this book, and the ISDN solution is a little different from the solutions that will be presented in 16 , xDSL Although the digital network exists and the digital switching systems exist, ISDN has not made large in-roads into the customer premises Once heralded as the solution for Internet access, it has been overtaken by xDSL (although there is an ISDN like DSL service called IDSL) and cable modems It has found some success in the business community, specifically for telecommuting and teleconferencing Although greeted with enthusiasm by many equipment makers, ISDN has been treated coolly by several of the major North American carriers The European monopoly carriers implemented ISDN in the major cities, while their rural telephone systems still use electromechanical switching The committees that defined ISDN concentrated on the interface

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ISDN was a concept developed by the Consultative Committee on International Telegraph and Telephone (CCITT) The CCITT has since changed its name to the ITU-T, but it is still the same folks made up primarily of representatives of the world s government-owned monopoly carriers Recall that in 1980 all telephone companies were monopolies and all were government-owned and run by the post office (thus, the name Post Telegraph and Telephone (PTT)) Canada and the US were exceptions because most of the Telcos were private companies that had been granted monopolies Although there were about 1,500 Telcos in the US, AT&T, GTE, and ITT owned the bulk of the important ones that covered the large population centers In Canada, the provincial governments owned the telephone company Exceptions were in British Columbia, Ontario, and Quebec Canada also has many small independent Telcos in the outlying areas

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The CCITT is a consultative committee to the International Telecommunication Union and have recently changed their name to ITU-T The ITU-T (CCITT) is a UN treaty organization and, as such, each country is entitled to send representatives to any committee meeting The representative typically comes from the government-run post office/telephone monopoly (PTT) The world s Telcos are becoming privatized and competition is being permitted This creates an interesting struggle within each country to determine who will represent that country s interest at the ITU-T Note that when discussing the organization s historical actions and composition, we call it the CCITT When we discuss its current actions, we call it ITU-T The name ITU-T came about due to the privatization trend separating telephone business from the post office and the general elimination of telegraph service Since its members were no longer PTTs, the organization couldn t be called CCITT The CCITT was a consulting committee to the International Telecommunications Union, so the ITU-TSS (ITU-T) is the Telecommunications Standard subsection of the ITU The CCITT is comprised of study groups (SG) Each SG has its own area of expertise Here are some of the better known ones related to ISDN:

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